Research papers (publications of university or research institution)
Movement (i.e. travel) in the Edo period was controlled through the sankin k?tai (alternate residence in Edo) and the kaikin (maritime prohibitions). The first (centripetal) enforced periodic travel to Edo by the daimy?; the second (centrifugal) prohibited travel across the sea. We can say, therefore, that the “Japan” was defined functionally in terms of movement: “Japan” is the geographical area within which travel must be carried out, and outside of which travel is not permitted.
During the Edo period, commoners travel more and more, along the main highways developed for the sankin k?tai, and thus this functional definition of Japan as a separate entity is experienced at the popular level as well. A major form of popular travel are the many pilgrimages throughout the country, and conversely a large number of itinerant religious figures join the pilgrims in spreading the local religious ideas and customs throughout Japan.
